SOURCES & CitAtions
All the sources this website uses as well as a few citations.
Annotated Bibliography
1.) Andriano, Liliana, et al. “Husbands’ Dominance in Decision-Making about Women’s Health: A Spatial Diffusion Perspective in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Demography, Duke University Press, 1 0ct. 2021, doi.org/10.1215/00703370-9429489.
This article delves into the prevalence and regional disparities in husbands’ decision-making dominance regarding women’s health in Sub-Saharan Africa during the 2000s and 2010s. The study uncovers significant variations both across countries and within regions of individual countries, with Western African nations generally exhibiting higher levels of husbands’ dominance compared to their Eastern and Southern counterparts. The research emphasizes the importance of examining this phenomenon at the local level, revealing substantial heterogeneity within countries.
The article also showcases how these dominance dynamics have evolved over time, with maps illustrating changes between the 2000s and 2010s, mostly attributed to factors changing within countries. The study introduces the concept of diffusion, indicating that the spread of new ideas and norms, including increased women’s education and urbanization, contributes to the reduction in husbands’ decision-making dominance.
2.) Annan, Jeannie, et al. “Taking power: Women’s empowerment and household well-being in Sub-Saharan africa.” World Development, vol. 140, 2021, p. 105292, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105292.
In “Taking power: Women’s empowerment and household well-being in Sub-Saharan Africa,” researchers Annan, Donald, Goldstein, Martinez, and Koolwal empirically examine the impact of intra-marital power relations and power imbalances on women’s health and reproductive outcomes, as well as on children’s health and education. They place an importance on perceptions of power rather than just power itself. Furthermore, the authors present empowerment as a process, by which two types of scenarios define varying outcomes: (1) women taking power themselves within marriage and (2) women being given power by their husbands. Ultimately, the authors determine that well-being indicators are highest when husbands recognize their wives’ power. The researchers find that, in the first scenario, women taking power themselves within marriage correlates with better outcomes for women’s and children’s health. At the same time, however, such situations are associated with a higher risk of domestic violence because the “contestation over rights in the household is strongly related to a higher prevalence of violence”.
The article acknowledges its existence within the larger body of empowerment literature overall. While the authors pull from existing feminist and empowerment theory, they also make a novel contribution to the overall corpus by emphasizing the distinction between and importance of women taking power versus receiving power, granted by the dominant male household figure. This paper helped provide excellent background on the importance of the project we were undertaking, positing that women’s empowerment and decision-making capacities within the realms of marriage have real and significant consequences. Additionally, this piece gave us key insight into how we were able to use this data to examine such issues, the authors pulling from DHS data themselves.
3.) Arestoff, Florence, and Elodie Djemai. “Women’s empowerment across the life cycle and generations: Evidence from Sub-Saharan africa.” World Development, vol. 87, 2016, pp. 70–87, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.06.002.
This research article claims that “[o]ne important dimension of female empowerment is the refusal of domestic or marital violence”. Arestoff, Florence, and Djemai’s main objective is to define empowerment as it relates to domestic violence, which the data they collected from the Demographic and Health Surveys shows. They analyzed responses to questions asking if men were justified in beating their wives for any reason. It became clear that female empowerment is increasing over time in countries in sub-Saharan Africa, with younger women being more likely to refuse violence from their partner and expecting that their older counterparts would do the same. This was important to the research that our group conducted because this signaled a shift in women’s rights in sub-Saharan Africa all together as refusing IPV caused changes in trends such as marriage and divorce rates and women’s socio-economic status as they began to defy what was long considered fairly normal. These trends can all impact one another, which was interesting to expand on in our study.
4.) Chambers, David L. “Civilizing the Natives: Marriage in Post-Apartheid South Africa.” Daedalus, vol. 129, no. 4, 2000, pp. 101–24. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20027666.
British and Afrikaaner whites controlled and exploited the black people of South Africa for several hundred years. The majority of the black population of South Africa has lived in rural areas, often in customary groups led by chiefs and following rigid, patriarchal hierarchies. Each of these groups maintained customs regarding birth, death, and marriage that varied much from group to group, which meant that when the British colonized the region, they tolerated the continued application of customary laws and practices by the chiefs of the groups as it allowed them to more easily administrate and even allowed them further exploit the population by making agreements with chiefs to keep them in power and allow them to continue applying customary law. Considering both the colonial era and the time of apartheid, these customs—which are maintained through living practice rather than being codified—may have been warped by white exaggeration of the level of male-dominance in the practices, especially when they attempted to translate and codify customary laws for use in local courts. One of the strongest symbols of these customs is lobolo, or the bridewealth given by the husband or husband’s family in exchange for the wife’s hand in marriage.
Through the formation of a black-majority parliamentary government, the question of how to create a constitution and legislation guaranteeing gender equality without stepping on the traditions and customs that had been maintained to that day was posed. The customary leaders appealed that the authority of customary law and the practice of it should be respected in the law, but many of the urban population and more liberal elements argued that this would continue the suppression of women’s rights and equality overall. Ultimately, it was decided that while customary law would be respected, all the rule-making power and authority would lie with the government and the legislation written by it. Despite the finality of this decision, the legislation being ratified and put forth doesn’t equate to immediate implementation nor enforcement; the country doesn’t have the resources to implement many of the systems necessary to enforce these new laws, which gives the customary groups potential to alter their traditions in a way that is more respectful and meaningful, yet also provides women the rights they deserve.
5.) Clark, Shelley, and Sarah Brauner‐Otto. “Divorce in sub‐saharan Africa: Are unions becoming less stable?” Population and Development Review, vol. 41, no. 4, 2015, pp. 583–605, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4457.2015.00086.x.
This article seeks to explore divorce rates in sub-saharan countries, for which there is currently not much reliable data. Tracking divorce rates would require having a consistent definition of what is considered marriage, what is considered divorce, and at what time both of those events officially occurred, but the civil registration systems in place are “inadequate in nearly all countries in sub-Saharan Africa”. However, the data that is available does show that divorce tends to have a negative effect on the children of the divorced pair and the financial stability of the former wife, and that divorce trends in sub-Saharan Africa tend to correspond with divorce trends around the world. This research article addresses three main questions: “how common is divorce across different countries and what is its geographic distribution?”, “has divorce risen, declined, or remained the same in sub-Saharan Africa?”, and “are factors associated with industrialization significantly correlated with divorce at the country level?”. It is discovered that in the majority of countries in sub-Saharan Africa over 20% of marriages end in divorce within the first 20 years of the union, but the rate at which divorce is increasing varies notably from country to country. Some actually have a decreasing rate of divorce. These variations are shown to be due to differences in socio-economic factors, such as education, living in urban versus rural areas, the woman’s employment status, et cetera. That last part was especially important to our group’s research because it helped us explore how women’s statuses and what she has achieved personally tend to influence her marriage, which may in turn influence her status in society.
6.) Dickson, Kwamena S., et al. “Silent suffering: Unveiling factors associated with women’s inability to seek help for intimate partner violence in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).” Reproductive Health, vol. 20, no. 1, 2023, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-023-01651-7.
The article “Silent Suffering: Unveiling Factors Associated with Women’s Inability to Seek Help for Intimate Partner Violence in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)” dives into the topic of intimate partner violence, which is an issue across the globe but is amplified in Sub-Saharan Africa. This is an open access research article authored by Dickinson, Boateng, Adzrago, Addo, Acquah, and Nyarko. Their research seeks to explore a couple of questions, namely “are there adequate support programs to help women who have experienced IPV” and “do women who experience IPV seek any form of support?”. It was found that the answer to the first question is yes, and studies have been conducted to make that point. The second question however, deals with a larger issue that is more difficult to study, which is that a fairly significant number of women in this region tolerate and/or justify IPV–47% in the Niger Delta, for example. Consequently, this research focuses on trying to get a better view of women’s tendencies to seek help in response to this type of violence. The data that was analyzed in this article came from the Demographic and Health Surveys from the years 2010 to 2020, and used a sample of over 53,000 women from 24 sub-saharan countries (2-3). An important takeaway from the research is that 60.7% of women did not seek help after experiencing IPV, due to a number of factors including whether they had experienced a different type of violence before, whether they were employed, and how much education they had. These findings facilitated a larger discussion about the potential detrimental effects of being left to deal with IPV on one’s own can pose for women in Sub-Saharan Africa. Our research for this project studied a number of the same indicators that this research used, so the findings in this paper certainly helped to contextualize the numbers that we used.
7.)Donald, Aletheia, et al. “Sharing responsibility through joint decision making and implications for intimate-partner violence: Evidence from 12 sub-saharan African countries.” Policy Research Working Papers, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-9760.
In “Sharing Responsibility through Joint Decision Making and Implications for Intimate-Partner Violence,” a policy research working paper from the World Bank, authors Donald, Doss, Goldstein, and Gupta investigate the “relationship between decision making within couples and the incidence of intimate partner violence [IPV] across 12 African countries”. They explore decision-making responsibilities in the household as a potential driver of IPV which has been underexplored. The authors contextualize their work within the larger body of work on joint decision making’s impacts on conflict, noting this topic’s exploration in other fields of political science, management, and conflict resolution. However, they differentiate their analysis by its household-level focus. Ultimately, the authors find that the highest level of IPV is associated with wives reporting that they are the household’s primary decision makers, no matter the husband’s view. Next, “couples that disagree over decision making roles… and couples that agree that the husband makes decisions” have lower reports of IPV than the first category. Lesser still are couples where joint decision making is reported by both parties. This paper was important for our project because it provided an important perspective on the implications of women’s decision making abilities and empowerment. Additionally, the authors admit the possibility of a lack of robustness, and test for omitted variable bias.
8.)Garenne, Michel. “Age at Marriage and Modernisation in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Southern African Journal of Demography, vol. 9, no. 2, 2004, pp. 59–79. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20853271.
The study titled “Age at Marriage and Modernization in Sub-Saharan Africa,” authored by Michel Garenne, examines the levels, trends, and influencing factors related to the age at first marriage among females in 32 sub-Saharan African countries over the past five decades. The study draws from data sourced from the World Fertility Surveys and the Demographic and Health Surveys. It computes estimates of the median age at first marriage for distinct 5-year birth cohorts, distinguishing between urban and rural areas. Results confirm that median age at first marriage is still low, in the 15–19 age band for most countries, with the exception of three Southern African countries (Namibia, Botswana and South Africa), where it is much higher. In most countries the median age at first marriage tends to increase for cohorts born after 1950, usually after a period of steady levels, or sometimes after a period of significant decrease, and exceeds the 20 years threshold for cohorts born after 1975 in several countries. In only a few countries, the median age at first marriage remained stable over time. The increase in median age at first marriage was small in rural areas, and more pronounced in urban areas, sometimes exceeding by 3 to 8 years earlier estimates. Main factors of increase in age at marriage were level of education and income, plus a small residual time trend. Main factors of lower age at marriage were religions (Islam and Christianity), polygyny, and urbanization after controlling for income and education. Results depict the social changes occurring in Africa over the 20th century, and the course of this new nuptiality transition.
9.) Howard, Rhoda. “Human rights and personal law: Women in sub-saharan africa.” African Issues, vol. 12, no. 1–2, 1982, pp. 45–52, https://doi.org/10.2307/1166538.
The research paper “Human Rights and Personal Law: Women in Sub-Saharan Africa” talks about women’s rights regarding marriage, the family, and genital operations in the context of what is deemed appropriate for women in Sub-Saharan Africa. The paper primarily focuses on these biological core issues as it is interesting that while women have the reproductive capabilities and bear their children, they have very little rights when it comes to this domain. The paper talks about the difference between human dignity and human rights – showing that there is a difference when it comes to women’s rights. Ultimately, the author argues against the notion that concerns for women’s rights represent Western cultural imperialism and emphasizes that women’s rights should not be delayed until these countries fully develop. The excerpt also highlights United Nations treaties containing clauses prohibiting practices like bridewealth and widow inheritance – which is common in sub-Saharan English-speaking Africa. These treaties are seen as essential tools for promoting and protecting women’s rights in the context of marriage and the family. In conclusion, the text advocates for the recognition of women’s rights in underdeveloped countries, taking into account cultural and historical contexts, and supporting women’s ability to exercise their individual rights.
10.) Delprato, Marcos, et al. “Intergenerational education effects of early marriage in Sub-Saharan africa.” World Development, vol. 91, 2017, pp. 173–192, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2016.11.010.
This research paper “Intergenerational education effects of early marriage in Sub-Saharan africa” investigates the impact of early marriage on educational inequality in Sub-Saharan Africa, examining its effects on children’s educational outcomes in 25-32 countries using data from the Demographic and Health Surveys for 2000 and 2010. The study also explores indirect pathways, including the influence of a mother’s education, health, and empowerment, as well as community factors, in connecting early marriage to children’s schooling. The key findings indicate that early marriage, while still a significant source of educational inequality, has seen a reduction in its impact over time. Girls born to early married mothers are more likely to have never attended school, start school late, and are less likely to complete primary school. Boys face similar educational setbacks. Gender inequality within households is exacerbated, with girls experiencing an additional 0.07 years of schooling loss compared to boys when born to early married mothers. Mother’s education and health play a mediating role, and a high prevalence of child marriage in a community negatively affects non-early married mothers’ children’s educational outcomes. In conclusion, the study emphasizes the need for targeted interventions and support for children affected by early marriage to promote greater equity in the global education agenda post-2015.
11.) Maswikwa, et al. “Minimum marriage age laws and the prevalence of child marriage and adolescent birth: Evidence from Sub-Saharan Africa.” International Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, vol. 41, no. 2, 2015, p. 58, https://doi.org/10.1363/4105815.
12.) Moultrie, Tom A., and Ian M. Timæus. “Fertility and Living Arrangements in South Africa.” Journal of Southern African Studies, vol. 27, no. 2, 2001, pp. 207–23. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/823325. Accessed 28 Oct. 2023.
The study titled “Fertility and Living Arrangements in South Africa” by Tom A. Moultrie and Ian M. Timæus investigates the impact of living arrangements on fertility outcomes considering various factors including rural-urban residence, education level, household income, language group, household structure, and more. They hypothesize that living arrangements mediate between their socioeconomic and cultural characteristics and the number of children born. Their data comes from the 1993 South Africa Project for Statistics on Living Standards and Development Study in association with the World Bank. It is already difficult to conceptualize and differentiate household structures, especially those based on gender differences, so the authors decided to focus on three factors to determine living arrangement differences: the presence or absence of the husband, relatives of the same generation, and relatives of the previous generation. Through their analysis, they found that the only significant differences in fertility rates after controlling for other influences were those between women of the same age living with or without relatives of the same generation and those between unmarried and separated mothers and married mothers of the same age. It was found to be about a fifth less for women living with relatives of the same generation and a fifth less for unmarried and separated mothers. Longitudinal or panel data is required to shed further light on the causal relationships between living arrangements and fertility, as well to explore the mechanics behind the suppressing effect of living with relatives of the same generation.
13.) Nabaggala, Maria Sarah, et al. “Effects of rural–urban residence and education on intimate partner violence among women in Sub-Saharan africa: A meta-analysis of Health Survey Data.” BMC Women’s Health, vol. 21, no. 1, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-021-01286-5.
The authors’ central argument is that targeted policies and interventions should be designed to empower specific groups of women, including younger individuals, those with lower education levels, limited financial resources, residents of rural areas, and individuals with diverse religious beliefs. This approach is crucial in reducing gender inequalities and promoting broader societal development, ensuring that all women, regardless of their circumstances, have the capacity to make informed choices about their reproductive health. The study underscores the need for inclusive efforts to address disparities and promote equitable access to reproductive health decision-making for all women.
14.) Shapiro, David, and Tesfayi Gebreselassie. “Marriage in Sub-Saharan africa: Trends, determinants, and consequences.” Population Research and Policy Review, vol. 33, no. 2, 2013, pp. 229–255, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11113-013-9287-4.
15.)Upadhyay, Ushma D., and Deborah Karasek. “Women’s empowerment and ideal family size: An examination of DHS empowerment measures in Sub-Saharan africa.” International Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, vol. 38, no. 02, 2012, pp. 078–089, https://doi.org/10.1363/3807812.
The writing explores the intricate relationship between women’s empowerment, desired family size, and actual fertility in four Sub-Saharan African countries: Guinea, Mali, Namibia, and Zambia. The study reveals that, while women’s empowerment is generally associated with smaller family size preferences, this connection varies across countries due to diverse sociocultural factors. The authors’ find that rejecting wife beating and higher education levels are associated with smaller ideal family sizes. Husbands’ preferences also play a significant role in women’s reproductive choices.
Regional variations in empowerment levels highlight the importance of tailoring interventions to specific country dynamics. The study calls for more contextually appropriate measures of empowerment and emphasizes the need to involve men in family planning discussions. Community-level effects are also considered, offering insights into the complex relationship between empowerment and fertility outcomes. Overall, this research underscores the complexity of women’s empowerment and family size preferences in Sub-Saharan Africa, emphasizing the importance of tailored, community-specific interventions and further comprehensive research to fully understand these dynamics.
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